الفرق بين المراجعتين لصفحة: «علم تأثير الأدوية»
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'''علم تأثير الأدوية''' | [[ملف:Pharmacy4.gif|200px|thumb|left|الهاون شعار للصيادلة وRx يشير إلى الأدوية التي توصف بوصفة فقط]] | ||
'''علم تأثير الأدوية''' {{إنج|Pharmacology}} هوالعلم الذي يهتم بدراسة [[مركب كيميائي|المركبات الكيميائية]] ذات التأثير العلاجي، وبشكل أكثر تحديداً يدرس علم الأدوية التأثيرات المتبادلة بين [[مركب دوائي|المركبات الدوائية]] والجسم الحي. | |||
الاسم اللاتيني يأتي من الإغريقية (pharmacon φάρμακον) يعني دواء، و(logos (λόγος) تعني علم. | الاسم اللاتيني يأتي من الإغريقية (pharmacon φάρμακον) يعني دواء، و(logos (λόγος) تعني علم. | ||
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يوجد على أسطح [[غشاء خلوي|أغشية الخلايا]] أو ضمن الخلايا في بعض الأحيان [[مستقبل|مستقبلات]]، تكون عبارة عن مرسالات (ناقلات إشارة) مرتبطة مع أنزيمات وبروتينات معينة موجودة ضمن الخلايا، ويؤدي التأثير على هذه المستقبلات إلى تفعيل أو تثبيط هذه الأنزيمات. | يوجد على أسطح [[غشاء خلوي|أغشية الخلايا]] أو ضمن الخلايا في بعض الأحيان [[مستقبل|مستقبلات]]، تكون عبارة عن مرسالات (ناقلات إشارة) مرتبطة مع أنزيمات وبروتينات معينة موجودة ضمن الخلايا، ويؤدي التأثير على هذه المستقبلات إلى تفعيل أو تثبيط هذه الأنزيمات. | ||
== | ==إقرأ أيضاً== | ||
* [[صيدلة]] | |||
* [[حرائك دوائية]] | |||
* [[ديناميكية دوائية]] | |||
* [[تأثير جانبي|تأثيرات جانبية]] | |||
* [[مضاد استطباب|مضادات الاستطباب]] | |||
* [[تداخل دوائي|تداخلات دوائية]] | |||
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{{ترجمة}} | |||
[[Image:Pharmacologyprism.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including [[neuropharmacology]], renal pharmacology, human [[metabolism]], intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation.]] | |||
'''Pharmacology''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:φάρμακον|φάρμακον]]}}, ''pharmakon'', "poison" in classic Greek; "drug" in modern Greek; and {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]}}, ''[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]'' "study of", "knowledge of") is the branch of medicine and [[biology]] concerned with the study of [[drug]] action<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vallance P, Smart TG |title=The future of pharmacology |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S304–7 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16402118 |pmc=1760753 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454 |url=}}</ref>, where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the cell) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have [[medication|medicinal]] properties, they are considered [[Pharmaceutical drug|pharmaceuticals]]. The field encompasses [[drug]] composition and properties, [[drug interaction|interaction]]s, [[toxicology]], therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are [[pharmacodynamics]] and [[pharmacokinetics]]. The former studies the effects of the drugs on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drugs. In broad terms, [[pharmacodynamics]] discusses the chemicals with biological [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]], and [[pharmacokinetics]] discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with [[pharmacy]] and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the reactions of the body and drug on each other, the sources of drugs, their nature, and their properties. In contrast, [[pharmacy]], a health services profession, is concerned with application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two are their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology. | |||
[[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides]]' ''[[De Materia Medica]]'' is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the history of pharmacology.<ref>Gulsel M. Kavalali (2003). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AoWtF1ruQJsC&pg=PA15&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles]''". [[CRC Press]]. p.15. ISBN 0-415-30833-X</ref> The origins of [[clinical pharmacology]] date back to the [[Middle Ages]] in [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Peter of Spain]]'s ''Commentary on Isaac'', and John of St Amand's ''Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brater DC, Daly WJ |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: principles that presage the 21st century |journal=Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–50 |year=2000 |month=May |pmid=10824622 |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465}}</ref> Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of [[William Withering]].<ref>Mannfred A. Hollinger (2003)."''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bx-WfLwrVH8C&pg=PA4&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Introduction to pharmacology]''". [[CRC Press]]. p.4. ISBN 0-415-28033-8</ref> Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.<ref name=rang2006>{{cite journal |author=Rang HP |title=The receptor concept: pharmacology's big idea |journal=Br. J. Pharmacol. |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S9–16 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16402126 |pmc=1760743 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706457}}</ref> Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as [[morphine]], [[quinine]] and [[digitalis]] were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.<ref name=AHM2002>{{cite journal |author=Maehle AH, Prüll CR, Halliwell RF |title=The emergence of the drug receptor theory |journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=637–41 |year=2002 |month=August |pmid=12402503 |doi=10.1038/nrd875}}</ref> The first pharmacology department was set up by [[Rudolf Buchheim]] in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.<ref name=rang2006/> | |||
Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.<ref name=rang>{{cite book|last=Rang|first=H.P.|title=Pharmacology|year=2007|coauthors=M.M. Dale, J.M. Ritter, R.J. Flower|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|location=[[China]]|isbn=0-443-06911-5}}</ref> | |||
==Divisions== | |||
===[[Clinical pharmacology]]=== | |||
The basic science of pharmacology, with added focus on the application of pharmacological principles and methods in the real world | |||
===[[Neuropharmacology]]=== | |||
Effects of medication on nervous system functioning. | |||
===[[Psychopharmacology]]=== | |||
Effects of medication on the brain; observing changed behaviors of the body | |||
and read the effect of drugs on the human brain. | |||
===[[Pharmacogenetics]]=== | |||
Clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs. | |||
===[[Pharmacogenomics]]=== | |||
Application of genomic technologies to new drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs. | |||
===[[Pharmacoepidemiology]]=== | |||
Study of effects of drugs in large numbers of people. | |||
===[[Toxicology]]=== | |||
Study of harmful or toxic effects of drugs. | |||
===Theoretical pharmacology=== | |||
Study of metrics in pharmacology. | |||
===Posology=== | |||
How medicines are dosed. It also depends upon various factors like age, climate, weight, sex, and so on. | |||
===[[Pharmacognosy]]=== | |||
A branch of pharmacology dealing especially with the composition, use, and development of medicinal substances of biological origin and especially medicinal substances obtained from plants. | |||
===Behavioral pharmacology=== | |||
Behavioral pharmacology, also referred to as psychopharmacology, is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs. It incorporates approaches and techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. Another goal of behavioral pharmacology is to develop animal behavioral models to screen chemical compounds with therapeutic potentials. People in this field (called behavioral pharmacologists) typically use small animals (e.g. rodents) to study psychotherapeutic drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants and anxiolytics, and drugs of abuse such as nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, etc. | |||
===Environmental pharmacology=== | |||
Environmental pharmacology is a new discipline.<ref>{{cite journal| url= http://www.ijp-online.com/text.asp?2006/38/4/229/27017 | |||
| doi=10.4103/0253-7613.27017 | last=Rahman| first=SZ| last2=Khan| first2=RA| title= Environmental pharmacology: A new discipline | journal= Indian J Pharmacol. | year=2006 | month=Dec| volume=38| issue=4| pages= 229–30}}</ref> Focus is being given to understand [[gene–environment interaction]], drug-environment interaction and toxin-environment interaction. There is a close collaboration between [[environmental science]] and [[medicine]] in addressing these issues, as healthcare itself can be a cause of [[environmental damage]] or [[Environmental remediation|remediation]]. Human health and ecology is intimately related. Demand for more pharmaceutical products may place the public at risk through the destruction of species. The entry of chemicals and drugs into the [[aquatic ecosystem]] is a more serious concern today. In addition, the production of some [[illegal drugs]] pollutes drinking water supply by releasing [[carcinogens]].<ref>Ilene Sue Ruhoy, Christian G. Daughton. Beyond the medicine cabinet: An analysis of where and why medications accumulate. Environment International 2008, Vol. 34 (8): 1157-1169</ref> More and more [[biodegradability]] of drugs are needed. | |||
==Scientific background== | |||
The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of [[cell biology]] and [[biochemistry]] increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]], to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or [[metabolic pathway]]s by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function). | |||
A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. [[Pharmacokinetics]] describes the effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. [[half-life]] and [[volume of distribution]]), and [[pharmacodynamics]] describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or [[toxic]]). | |||
When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in ''LADME'': | |||
* [[Liberation]] - disintegration (for solid oral forms {breaking down into smaller particles}), dispersal and dissolution | |||
* [[Absorption (digestive)|Absorption]] - How is the medication absorbed (through the [[human skin|skin]], the [[intestine]], the [[oral mucosa]])? | |||
* [[Distribution (pharmacology)|Distribution]] - How does it spread through the organism? | |||
* [[Drug metabolism|Metabolism]] - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances. Are these active? Could they be toxic? | |||
* [[Excretion]] - How is the medication eliminated (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)? | |||
Medication is said to have a narrow or wide ''[[therapeutic index]]'' or ''[[therapeutic window]]''. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require [[therapeutic drug monitoring]] (examples are [[warfarin]], some [[antiepileptic]]s, [[aminoglycoside]] [[antibiotics]]). Most anti-[[cancer]] drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill [[tumor]]s. | |||
==Medicine development and safety testing== | |||
[[Drug development|Development of medication]] is a vital concern to [[medicine]], but also has strong [[economical]] and [[political]] implications. To protect the [[consumer]] and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the [[United States]], the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the [[Food and Drug Administration]] and they enforce [[Technical standard|standards]] set by the [[United States Pharmacopoeia]]. In the [[European Union]], the main [[body]] that regulates pharmaceuticals is the [[European Medicines Agency|EMEA]] and they enforce standards set by the [[European Pharmacopoeia]]. | |||
The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of candidate drug compounds have to be assessed for drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many methods have been proposed for quantitative predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a recent computational method is [http://www.freebase.com/view/en/sporcalc SPORCalc].<ref>{{cite journal | author = James Smith; Viktor Stein | year = 2009 | title = SPORCalc: A development of a database analysis that provides putative metabolic enzyme reactions for ligand-based drug design | journal = Computational Biology and Chemistry | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–159 | pmid=19157988 | doi = 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2008.11.002 }}</ref> If the chemical structure of a medicinal compound is altered slightly, this could slightly or dramatically alter the medicinal properties of the compound depending on the level of alteration as it relates to the structural composition of the substrate or receptor site on which it exerts its medicinal effect, a concept referred to as the structural activity relationship (SAR). This means that when a useful activity has been identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, in an attempt to maximize the desired medicinal effect(s) of the compound. This development phase can take anywhere from a few years to a decade or more and is very expensive.<ref name="ReviseALChem">{{cite book|last=Newton|first=David|coauthors=Alasdair Thorpe, Chris Otter|title=Revise A2 Chemistry|publisher=[[Heinemann Educational Publishers]]|year=2004|pages=1|month=|isbn =0-435-58347-6}}</ref> | |||
These new analogues need to be developed. It needs to be determined how safe the medicine is for human consumption, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to the desired organ system, like tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to 6 years, the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/> | |||
As a result of the long time required to develop analogues and test a new medicine and the fact that of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, costing millions of dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things:<ref name="ReviseALChem"/> | |||
* Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an outlay of company funds.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/> | |||
* Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing that medicine for a certain allocation of time.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/> | |||
==Drug legislation and safety== | |||
In the [[United States]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements: | |||
# The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval. | |||
# The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to extensive animal and controlled human testing. | |||
Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years to attain. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a [[therapeutic effect]] or desired outcome.<ref name=nagle>{{cite book|last=Nagle|first=Hinter|title=Pharmacology: An Introduction|year=2005|coauthors=Barbara Nagle|publisher=[[McGraw Hill]]|location=[[Boston]]|isbn=0-07-312275-0}}</ref> | |||
The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. is regulated by the federal [[Prescription Drug Marketing Act (PDMA)|Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987]]. | |||
The [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]] (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK. | |||
==Education== | |||
The study of pharmacology is offered in many universities worldwide in programs that differ from pharmacy programs. Students of pharmacology are trained as biomedical researchers, studying the effects of substances in order to better understand the mechanisms which might lead to new drug discoveries, for example, or studying biological systems for the purpose of re-defining drug mechanisms or discovering new mechanisms against which novel therapies can be directed (or new pathways for the sake of a more complete picture of its biochemistry). In addition, students of pharmacology must have detailed working knowledge of those areas in which biological or chemical therapeutics play a role. These may include (but are not limited to): biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, chemical biology, physiology, chemistry, neuroscience, and microbiology. Whereas a pharmacy student will eventually work in a pharmacy dispensing medications or some other position focused on the patient, a pharmacologist will typically work within a laboratory setting. | |||
== See also == | |||
{{Col-begin}} | |||
{{Col-1-of-3}} | |||
* [[Certain safety factor]] | |||
* [[Cosmeceuticals]] | |||
* [[Crude drugs]] | |||
* [[Drug design]] | |||
* [[Drug metabolism]] | |||
* [[Drug Discovery Hit to Lead]] | |||
* [[Enzyme inhibitor]]s | |||
* [[Herbalism]] | |||
* [[History of pharmacy]] | |||
* [[International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology]] | |||
* [[Inverse benefit law]] | |||
* [[List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions]] | |||
* [[List of pharmaceutical companies]] | |||
* [[List of withdrawn drugs]] | |||
{{Col-2-of-3}} | |||
* [[Medicare Part D]] - the new prescription drug plan in the U.S. | |||
* [[Medication]] | |||
* [[Medicinal chemistry]] | |||
* [[Medical School]] | |||
* [[Neuropharmacology]] - The Molecular and Behavior study of Disease and Drugs in the Nervous System | |||
* [[Neuropsychopharmacology]] - The detailed comprehensive study of mind, brain and drugs. | |||
* [[Nicholas Culpeper]] - 17th century English Physician who translated and used 'pharmacological texts'. | |||
* [[Pharmaceutical company]] | |||
* [[Pharmaceutical formulation]] | |||
{{Col-3-of-3}} | |||
{{Portal|Pharmacy and Pharmacology}} | |||
* [[Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment]] | |||
* [[Pharmacognosy]] | |||
* [[Pharmacopoeia]] | |||
* [[Pharmacotherapy]] | |||
* [[Pharmakeia]] | |||
* [[Pharmakos]] | |||
* [[Placebo (origins of technical term)]] | |||
* [[Prescription drug]] | |||
* [[Prescription Drug Marketing Act (PDMA)]] | |||
* [[Psychopharmacology]] - medication for mental conditions | |||
* [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]] | |||
{{Col-end}} | |||
==Footnotes== | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
==External links== | |||
* [http://www.aspet.org American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics]. | |||
* [http://www.bps.ac.uk British Pharmacological Society]. | |||
* [http://www.nndb.com/lists/623/000098329/ Pharmaceutical company profiles at NNDB]. | |||
* [http://www.ich.org/ International Conference on Harmonisation]. | |||
* [http://www.usp.org US Pharmacopeia]. | |||
* [http://www.iuphar.org International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology]. | |||
* [http://www.iuphar-db.org IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification]. | |||
{{Pharmacology}} | |||
{{BranchesofChemistry}} | |||
{{Technology-footer}} | |||
[[Category:Pharmacology| ]] | |||
[[Category:Biochemistry]] | |||
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{{قالب:مجموعات الأدوية الرئيسية}} | |||
{{قالب:صيدلة}} | |||
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[[تصنيف:صيدلة]] | [[تصنيف:صيدلة]] | ||
[[تصنيف:علوم]] | [[تصنيف:علوم]] | ||
[[تصنيف:موسوعة الأدوية]] | |||
المراجعة الحالية بتاريخ 21:13، 11 سبتمبر 2012
علم تأثير الأدوية (بالإنجليزية: Pharmacology) هوالعلم الذي يهتم بدراسة المركبات الكيميائية ذات التأثير العلاجي، وبشكل أكثر تحديداً يدرس علم الأدوية التأثيرات المتبادلة بين المركبات الدوائية والجسم الحي. الاسم اللاتيني يأتي من الإغريقية (pharmacon φάρμακον) يعني دواء، و(logos (λόγος) تعني علم.
أقسام علم تأثير الأدوية
- الديناميكية الدوائية pharmacodynamic: يبحث في تأثير الدواء على الجسم، والآلية الجزيئية لحدث هذا التأثير.
- الحرائكية الدوائية Pharmacokinetic: ويبحث في تأثيرات الجسم على الدواء.
- علم الأدوية السريري Pharmacotherapeutic: ويبحث في انتقاء الدواء المناسب للمرض وللحالة المرضية.
أنماط تأثير الأدوية
يمكن أن يشمل تأثير الدواء على الجسم وفقاً لأحد الأنماط التالية:
- التأثير الوقائي: لمنع الإصابة بالمرض.
- لتشخيص الأمراض: مثل كبريتات الباريوم المستعملة في الصور الظليلة
- المعالجة العرضية: أي معالجة الأعراض مرضية فقط والتخفيف منها وذلك في حال عدم قدرتنا على معالجة المسبب الحقيقي للمرض، مثل الأسيتامينوفين Acetamenophine الذي يستخدم لعلاج ال[[صداع] و الذي هو عبارة عن عرض مرضي قد يترافق مع كثير من الأمراض.
- المعالجة النوعية: أي معالجة المرض والمسبب له، مثال: بنسيلين ج Penicilline G الذي يستخدم لعلاج العنقودات الجرثومية.
- تعديل أو تغير وظيفة في الجسم: مثال : مانعات الحمل الفموية.
- التأثيرات الجانبيةSide effects: وهي عبارة عن تأثيرات فيزيولوجية غير مرغوبة وناجمة عن استخدام الدواء.
آليات تأثير الأدوية
فيزيائياً
أي من خلال الخواص الفيزيائية التي تبديها المادة الدوائية، مثال: الكاؤولين Kaolin الذي يستخدم في حالة الإسهال، حيث يقوم بادمصاص الماء الموجود في الأمعاء. وأيضاً من الأمثلة عليها كبريتات المغنزيوم التي تستخدم مع الإمساك، من خلال تأثيرها على الضغط الحلولي في جوف الأمعاء.
كيميائياً
أي من خلال الخواص الكيمائية التي تبديها المادة الدوائية، مثال مضادات الحموضة التي تعدل حموضة المعدة من خلال استخدام مواد قلوية ، مثل كربونات الكالسيوم CaCo3 وبيكربونات الصوديوم NaHCo3.
التأثير على المادة النووية وانقسام الخلايا
كما في الأدوية المضادة للسرطان.
التأثير على الأنزيمات الخلوية
الأنزيمات هي عبارة عن جزيئة بروتينية تكون مسؤولة عن إتمام جميع التفاعلات الحيوية ضمن الخلية، وأي تأثير على هذه الأنزيمات سينعكس على التفاعل الموجه بفعل هذا الأنزيم، ويشمل تأثير الدواء على الأنزيمات:
- تثبيط هذه الأنزيمات مثل النيوستيغمين Neostigmen الذي يقوم بتثبيط الكولين استيراز الأنزيم المسؤول عن تخريب الأستيل كولين
- تنشيط هذه الأنزيمات.
- تغير فعالية هذه الأنزيمات.
- تخريب هذه الأنزيمات.
التأثير على المستقبلات
يوجد على أسطح أغشية الخلايا أو ضمن الخلايا في بعض الأحيان مستقبلات، تكون عبارة عن مرسالات (ناقلات إشارة) مرتبطة مع أنزيمات وبروتينات معينة موجودة ضمن الخلايا، ويؤدي التأثير على هذه المستقبلات إلى تفعيل أو تثبيط هذه الأنزيمات.
إقرأ أيضاً
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Pharmacology (from Greek φάρμακονقالب:Category handler, pharmakon, "poison" in classic Greek; "drug" in modern Greek; and -λογίαقالب:Category handler, -logia "study of", "knowledge of") is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action[1], where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the cell) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drugs on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drugs. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the reactions of the body and drug on each other, the sources of drugs, their nature, and their properties. In contrast, pharmacy, a health services profession, is concerned with application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two are their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology.
Dioscorides' De Materia Medica is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the history of pharmacology.[2] The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac, and John of St Amand's Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas.[3] Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of William Withering.[4] Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.[5] Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.[6] The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.[5]
Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.[7]
Divisions
Clinical pharmacology
The basic science of pharmacology, with added focus on the application of pharmacological principles and methods in the real world
Neuropharmacology
Effects of medication on nervous system functioning.
Psychopharmacology
Effects of medication on the brain; observing changed behaviors of the body and read the effect of drugs on the human brain.
Pharmacogenetics
Clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs.
Pharmacogenomics
Application of genomic technologies to new drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs.
Pharmacoepidemiology
Study of effects of drugs in large numbers of people.
Toxicology
Study of harmful or toxic effects of drugs.
Theoretical pharmacology
Study of metrics in pharmacology.
Posology
How medicines are dosed. It also depends upon various factors like age, climate, weight, sex, and so on.
Pharmacognosy
A branch of pharmacology dealing especially with the composition, use, and development of medicinal substances of biological origin and especially medicinal substances obtained from plants.
Behavioral pharmacology
Behavioral pharmacology, also referred to as psychopharmacology, is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs. It incorporates approaches and techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. Another goal of behavioral pharmacology is to develop animal behavioral models to screen chemical compounds with therapeutic potentials. People in this field (called behavioral pharmacologists) typically use small animals (e.g. rodents) to study psychotherapeutic drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants and anxiolytics, and drugs of abuse such as nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, etc.
Environmental pharmacology
Environmental pharmacology is a new discipline.[8] Focus is being given to understand gene–environment interaction, drug-environment interaction and toxin-environment interaction. There is a close collaboration between environmental science and medicine in addressing these issues, as healthcare itself can be a cause of environmental damage or remediation. Human health and ecology is intimately related. Demand for more pharmaceutical products may place the public at risk through the destruction of species. The entry of chemicals and drugs into the aquatic ecosystem is a more serious concern today. In addition, the production of some illegal drugs pollutes drinking water supply by releasing carcinogens.[9] More and more biodegradability of drugs are needed.
Scientific background
The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors, to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function).
A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. Pharmacokinetics describes the effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. half-life and volume of distribution), and pharmacodynamics describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or toxic).
When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in LADME:
- Liberation - disintegration (for solid oral forms {breaking down into smaller particles}), dispersal and dissolution
- Absorption - How is the medication absorbed (through the skin, the intestine, the oral mucosa)?
- Distribution - How does it spread through the organism?
- Metabolism - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances. Are these active? Could they be toxic?
- Excretion - How is the medication eliminated (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)?
Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index or therapeutic window. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside antibiotics). Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill tumors.
Medicine development and safety testing
Development of medication is a vital concern to medicine, but also has strong economical and political implications. To protect the consumer and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the United States, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the Food and Drug Administration and they enforce standards set by the United States Pharmacopoeia. In the European Union, the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the EMEA and they enforce standards set by the European Pharmacopoeia.
The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of candidate drug compounds have to be assessed for drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many methods have been proposed for quantitative predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a recent computational method is SPORCalc.[10] If the chemical structure of a medicinal compound is altered slightly, this could slightly or dramatically alter the medicinal properties of the compound depending on the level of alteration as it relates to the structural composition of the substrate or receptor site on which it exerts its medicinal effect, a concept referred to as the structural activity relationship (SAR). This means that when a useful activity has been identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, in an attempt to maximize the desired medicinal effect(s) of the compound. This development phase can take anywhere from a few years to a decade or more and is very expensive.[11]
These new analogues need to be developed. It needs to be determined how safe the medicine is for human consumption, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to the desired organ system, like tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to 6 years, the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling.[11]
As a result of the long time required to develop analogues and test a new medicine and the fact that of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, costing millions of dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things:[11]
- Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an outlay of company funds.[11]
- Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing that medicine for a certain allocation of time.[11]
Drug legislation and safety
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements:
- The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval.
- The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to extensive animal and controlled human testing.
Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years to attain. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a therapeutic effect or desired outcome.[12]
The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. is regulated by the federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987.
The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK.
Education
The study of pharmacology is offered in many universities worldwide in programs that differ from pharmacy programs. Students of pharmacology are trained as biomedical researchers, studying the effects of substances in order to better understand the mechanisms which might lead to new drug discoveries, for example, or studying biological systems for the purpose of re-defining drug mechanisms or discovering new mechanisms against which novel therapies can be directed (or new pathways for the sake of a more complete picture of its biochemistry). In addition, students of pharmacology must have detailed working knowledge of those areas in which biological or chemical therapeutics play a role. These may include (but are not limited to): biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, chemical biology, physiology, chemistry, neuroscience, and microbiology. Whereas a pharmacy student will eventually work in a pharmacy dispensing medications or some other position focused on the patient, a pharmacologist will typically work within a laboratory setting.
See also
Footnotes
- ↑ Vallance P, Smart TG (2006). "The future of pharmacology". British Journal of Pharmacology. 147 Suppl 1 (S1): S304–7. PMC 1760753
. PMID 16402118. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454. Unknown parameter |month=ignored (|date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Gulsel M. Kavalali (2003). "Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles". CRC Press. p.15. ISBN 0-415-30833-X
- ↑ Brater DC, Daly WJ (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: principles that presage the 21st century". Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 67 (5): 447–50. PMID 10824622. doi:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (|date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Mannfred A. Hollinger (2003)."Introduction to pharmacology". CRC Press. p.4. ISBN 0-415-28033-8
- ↑ 5٫0 5٫1 Rang HP (2006). "The receptor concept: pharmacology's big idea". Br. J. Pharmacol. 147 Suppl 1 (S1): S9–16. PMC 1760743. PMID 16402126. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706457. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (|date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Maehle AH, Prüll CR, Halliwell RF (2002). "The emergence of the drug receptor theory". Nat Rev Drug Discov. 1 (8): 637–41. PMID 12402503. doi:10.1038/nrd875. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (|date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Rang, H.P.; M.M. Dale, J.M. Ritter, R.J. Flower (2007). Pharmacology. China: Elsevier. ISBN 0-443-06911-5. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors=(help) - ↑ Rahman, SZ; Khan, RA (2006). "Environmental pharmacology: A new discipline". Indian J Pharmacol. 38 (4): 229–30. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.27017. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (|date=suggested) (help) - ↑ Ilene Sue Ruhoy, Christian G. Daughton. Beyond the medicine cabinet: An analysis of where and why medications accumulate. Environment International 2008, Vol. 34 (8): 1157-1169
- ↑ James Smith; Viktor Stein (2009). "SPORCalc: A development of a database analysis that provides putative metabolic enzyme reactions for ligand-based drug design". Computational Biology and Chemistry. 33 (2): 149–159. PMID 19157988. doi:10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2008.11.002.
- ↑ 11٫0 11٫1 11٫2 11٫3 11٫4 Newton, David; Alasdair Thorpe, Chris Otter (2004). Revise A2 Chemistry. Heinemann Educational Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 0-435-58347-6. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors=(help) - ↑ Nagle, Hinter; Barbara Nagle (2005). Pharmacology: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-312275-0. Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors=(help)
External links
- American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.
- British Pharmacological Society.
- Pharmaceutical company profiles at NNDB.
- International Conference on Harmonisation.
- US Pharmacopeia.
- International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology.
- IUPHAR Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification.
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